International Journal of Pathogen Research

Artificial Intelligence in Drug Susceptibility Testing for Multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis: Genomic Prediction, Automated Phenotyping and Clinical Translation

2026-09-08T11:11:12+00:00

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis requires drug susceptibility information that is both rapid and sufficiently comprehensive to support effective regimen construction. Culture-based phenotypic drug susceptibility testing remains indispensable because it measures biological response directly, but its turnaround time, technical complexity and variable reproducibility for some drugs constrain timely treatment. Molecular testing is faster, yet fixed mutation catalogues and targeted assays can leave rare, complex or incompletely characterised resistance unresolved. Artificial intelligence, particularly machine learning and deep learning, is being developed as an interpretive layer for two complementary data streams: genomic sequence data and digital measurements of bacterial growth. This critical narrative review evaluates how these approaches may improve susceptibility prediction for multidrug- and rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis, where their evidence is strongest, and which methodological and implementation barriers limit clinical adoption. Genomic machine-learning models show the most mature evidence for rifampicin and isoniazid and increasingly for fluoroquinolones, while performance is less stable for drugs with sparse resistant training examples, uncertain genotype-phenotype relationships or difficult phenotypic reference standards. Quantitative models that predict minimum inhibitory concentrations may capture resistance gradations lost by binary classification, but their clinical interpretation remains immature. Computer-vision and single-cell growth approaches offer a different advantage: they retain a phenotypic readout while automating or accelerating culture interpretation. Their current evidence base, however, is smaller and includes important proof-of-concept studies that have not yet been validated in routine multidrug-resistant tuberculosis services. Across both domains, external validation, lineage and geographic representativeness, reference-standard quality, uncertainty reporting, reproducibility and workflow integration are more important determinants of clinical credibility than algorithmic complexity alone. Artificial intelligence should therefore be treated as an adjunct to validated laboratory methods, with explicit indeterminate outputs and reflex testing when predictions are uncertain. Prospective multicentre studies linking algorithm-assisted susceptibility testing to treatment decisions, turnaround time, patient outcomes, cost and equity are now the principal translational priority.

Innovative Diagnostic Strategies for Neuroparasitic Diseases in Low-resource Health Systems

2026-09-17T11:55:02+00:00

Neuroparasitic diseases constitute a significant but frequently overlooked component of the global burden of neurological disorders and disproportionately affect populations in low- and middle-income countries. This review evaluates current and emerging diagnostic strategies for major neuroparasitic diseases and considers their operational suitability in resource-constrained settings. Conditions including neurocysticercosis, cerebral malaria, cerebral toxoplasmosis, neuroschistosomiasis, and human African trypanosomiasis contribute substantially to epilepsy, cognitive impairment, neurological disability, and premature mortality. Despite advances in therapeutic interventions, effective disease control remains constrained by persistent diagnostic challenges, particularly in resource-limited settings, where access to neuroimaging, molecular diagnostics, and specialist neurological expertise is severely restricted. Traditional diagnostic approaches rely heavily on neuroimaging modalities supplemented by serological assays and conventional microscopy; these methods are frequently limited by high costs, infrastructure requirements, low sensitivity in early disease, and serological cross-reactivity. Recent technological innovations have generated renewed optimism regarding the diagnosis of neuroparasitic infections in underserved regions. Antigen-detection assays capable of identifying active infections, cerebrospinal fluid polymerase chain reaction, and artificial intelligence-assisted microscopy have emerged as promising alternatives. Advances in portable molecular technologies, digital pathology, smartphone-based imaging systems, and machine-learning algorithms further suggest the possibility of bringing highly sensitive diagnostic capabilities closer to the point of care. Applying the World Health Organization ASSURED framework as an evaluative lens, this review contends that future progress depends less on incremental gains in analytical sensitivity and more on the structural reorganisation of diagnostic networks. Sustained investment in laboratory workforce development and the integration of digital health infrastructure are required to connect frontline facilities with specialist expertise. Only through systemic alignment can innovative diagnostics for neuroparasitic diseases effectively narrow the gap between scientific capability and population health needs.

Biocontrol Potential of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria against Fusarium oxysporum in Pepper Plants

2026-08-11T13:10:39+00:00

Aim: This study aimed to examine the biocontrol potential of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria previously isolated from the tomato rhizosphere against Fusarium oxysporum in pepper plants.

Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted at the Microbiology Laboratory of the Federal University, Oye-Ekiti, between July 2025 and May 2026.

Methods: Isolates were obtained from stock cultures and screened for key plant growth-promoting traits, including ammonia, siderophore, nitrogen fixation, and amylase production. Phytopathogenic fungi were isolated from apparently diseased tomato plants. The antifungal activity of the rhizobacterial isolates was evaluated using a dual-culture method. The greenhouse experiment was conducted using a completely randomised block design.

Results: Each of the five bacterial isolates exhibited important plant growth-promoting characteristics. Throughout the investigation, isolate IS4A produced the greatest increase in plant height, reaching more than 35 cm by Week 8. By Week 8, isolate IS9 had reached approximately 30 cm, representing the second-highest growth promotion. The highest percentage inhibition of Fusarium was recorded for isolate IS14B (56%), followed by IS13 (47%), IS4A (45%), IS9 (27%), and IS10 (24%). Among all groups, pathogen-inoculated plants (Control 1: Fusarium only) had the lowest fresh weight (5.21 g) and dry weight (0.42 g). IS9 recorded the greatest biomass accumulation, with a fresh weight of 32.12 g and a dry weight of 8.16 g, more than three times the healthy baseline (Control 2: 9.39 g fresh weight and 2.38 g dry weight).

Conclusion: The present findings indicate that Pseudomonas lactis and Bacillus tropicus have potential as biological control agents against Fusarium oxysporum while simultaneously promoting pepper growth.

Effects of Gravidity and Gestational Age on Parasite Density and Biochemical Parameters among Malaria-infected Pregnant Women in Ondo State, Nigeria

2026-08-20T11:21:22+00:00

Background: Malaria during pregnancy remains a major public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa, contributing substantially to maternal and foetal morbidity and mortality. Gravidity and gestational age are recognised determinants of malaria susceptibility, yet their influence on parasite density and biochemical alterations among pregnant women remains inadequately characterised in many endemic communities. This study investigated the effects of gravidity and gestational age on parasite density and selected biochemical parameters among malaria-infected pregnant women in Iwaro-Oka, Ondo State, Nigeria.

Methods: A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 63 pregnant women attending antenatal clinics. Participants were classified according to gravidity (primigravidae, secundigravidae, and multigravidae) and gestational age (first, second, and third trimesters). Venous blood samples were collected for malaria parasite detection and biochemical analyses using standard laboratory methods.

Results: Forty-five (71.4%) participants were positive for malaria infection. Mean parasite density was significantly higher among primigravidae than secundigravidae and multigravidae (P < 0.05). Likewise, women in the first trimester exhibited significantly higher parasite densities than those in the second and third trimesters (P < 0.05). Serum creatinine and urea concentrations were significantly elevated among primigravidae and first-trimester women (P < 0.05), whereas serum sodium, calcium, bicarbonate, and chloride concentrations were significantly higher among secundigravidae and multigravidae (P < 0.05). Although HDL cholesterol levels were lower among primigravidae and first-trimester women, these differences were not statistically significant (P > 0.05).

Conclusion: Gravidity and gestational age significantly influence malaria parasite density and selected biochemical parameters during pregnancy. Primigravidae and women in the first trimester demonstrated the greatest parasite burden and the most pronounced biochemical alterations, suggesting increased vulnerability to malaria-related complications. Strengthening malaria prevention, early diagnosis, and routine biochemical monitoring during antenatal care, particularly among first-time mothers and women in early pregnancy, may improve maternal and foetal outcomes in malaria-endemic settings.

Bacterial Uropathogens and Their Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profiles among Symptomatic UTI Patients Attending Major Healthcare Facilities in Calabar, Southern Nigeria

2026-08-28T13:17:03+00:00

Background: Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are a major global health concern, affecting millions of individuals annually. Their management is increasingly challenged by the growing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among uropathogens.

Aim: This study aimed to determine the prevalence and multidrug resistance (MDR) profile of bacterial uropathogens isolated from symptomatic UTI patients attending Major healthcare facilities in Calabar, Nigeria.

Methods: A total of 65 bacterial uropathogens were isolated from symptomatic UTI patients attending Major healthcare facilities in Calabar. The isolates were identified using standard microbiological techniques, while Gram-negative isolates were further confirmed using commercial biochemical identification kits, including Analytical Profile Index (API) 20E and API 20NE (bioMérieux). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using the modified Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method in accordance with Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines.

Results: Klebsiella pneumoniae was the most frequently isolated pathogen (23.1%), followed by Staphylococcus sp. (16.9%) and Escherichia coli (12.3%). Other organisms identified included Enterobacter cloacae, Citrobacter freundii, Proteus mirabilis, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Cronobacter sp., Enterococcus sp., Citrobacter koseri, and Pseudomonas luteola. High levels of resistance were observed among the isolates to augmentin, amoxicillin, septrin, ampiclox, erythromycin, and rifampicin. Conversely, relatively higher susceptibility to levofloxacin, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, and sparfloxacin was observed.

Conclusion: The findings provide current evidence on the distribution of bacterial uropathogens and the burden of MDR among UTI patients attending Major healthcare facilities in Calabar, Nigeria. The observed resistance patterns highlight the importance of local antimicrobial susceptibility surveillance to guide appropriate empirical treatment of UTIs. Prudent and evidence-based use of antimicrobial agents is recommended to limit the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance among bacterial uropathogens.

Malaria Parasitemia among Patients Seeking Healthcare in Nnewi, Anambra State, Nigeria

2026-09-03T09:31:05+00:00

Malaria remains a major public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria, particularly among economically disadvantaged communities. A cross-sectional study of malaria parasitaemia among patients attending Eco Medical Laboratory and Diagnostic Centre, Nnewi, Anambra State, Nigeria was conducted between February and June 2026. The objective was to investigate malaria prevalence and density by age, gender, education, and occupation among the study participants. A total of 400 individuals participated in the study. Malaria parasites were diagnosed using Giemsa-stained thick and thin blood films, which were examined under the microscope. Of the 400 (100%) study participants, 288 (72.0%) were positive for Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites, while 112 (28.0%) were negative. Among the age groups, the 35-39-year age group recorded the highest prevalence, with 72 (25.00%) positive cases. Males recorded the highest number of malaria parasite-positive cases, 159 (55.20%), while females recorded the lowest number, 129 (44.80%). The secondary education group recorded the highest number of malaria parasite-positive cases, 113 (39.24%), and there was a significant association between malaria prevalence and educational group (P<0.05, P=0.002). Among the occupational groups, traders recorded the highest malaria prevalence, 94 (32.64%), while the unemployed group had the lowest, 61 (21.18%). There was also a significant association between malaria prevalence and occupational group (P<0.05, P=0.041). Of the 288 (72.0%) study participants who were positive for malaria parasites, 62 (21.53%) had mild infection, 118 (40.97%) had moderate infection, while 108 (37.50%) had severe infection. To drastically reduce malaria prevalence in Nnewi communities, government intervention through mass chemotherapy and integrated vector control is recommended for the study area.

Aspergillus flavus and Soil Fungi Aflatoxin Production Potential Using Coconut Medium in Al Ahsa Oasis, Saudi Arabia

2026-09-12T11:35:37+00:00

Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic mycotoxins produced primarily by Aspergillus flavus and represent a severe threat to food safety, with contamination potentially originating in agricultural soil. This study aimed to isolate, characterise, and evaluate the aflatoxigenic potential of Aspergillus spp. in agricultural soils from the Al-Ahsa oasis, Saudi Arabia. One hundred soil samples were collected, and fungi were isolated on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar at 27 °C and 37 °C. Identification was based on macroscopic and microscopic morphological characteristics. Aflatoxin production was screened using Coconut Agar Medium (CAM) under ultraviolet light (365 nm). Among 122 primary isolates, Rhizopus spp. was the most prevalent (46 isolates), followed by Aspergillus fumigatus (30) and A. flavus (10). Further subculturing yielded 17 pure A. flavus isolates for aflatoxin testing. The CAM formulation containing coconut powder was effective, whereas the coconut oil formulation failed. Fourteen A. flavus isolates (82.4%) were aflatoxigenic, with production classified as high (3), medium (7), or low (4). Chi-square, Kruskal-Wallis, and binary logistic regression analyses found no significant association between aflatoxin production and geographical origin (p > 0.05), suggesting that toxigenicity may be strain-specific rather than environmentally determined. The high prevalence of toxigenic A. flavus indicates a substantial pre-harvest contamination risk for key crops in Al-Ahsa, particularly date palms. The study supports CAM as a cost-effective screening tool and highlights the need for integrated soil-management strategies in the region.

Prevalence of Malaria and Typhoid Co-Infection among Patients in Afikpo, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

2026-09-16T11:32:29+00:00

Malaria and typhoid fever are important causes of febrile illness in tropical regions and may occur concurrently in areas where both infections are endemic. Their overlapping clinical manifestations can complicate differential diagnosis and may contribute to inappropriate treatment when laboratory confirmation is inadequate. In Afikpo, environmental conditions and limited awareness of disease aetiology and preventive measures further underscore the need to assess the occurrence of malaria–typhoid co-infection among febrile patients attending local health facilities. The present study examined the occurrence of Salmonella typhi and Plasmodium falciparum co-infection among 200 individuals from Mater Misericordia Hospital Afikpo (MMHA; n=100) and General Hospital Itim Afikpo (GHIA; n=100). Slide agglutination and blood cultures were used to test for typhoid fever, while RDT was performed together with thin- and thick-film microscopy to diagnose malaria. Questionnaires were used to determine the sociodemographic profiles of the patients and their knowledge regarding the causes of the diseases. Awareness was quite low; 12.5% knew that malaria was caused by P. falciparum, while 47.0% correctly identified mosquitoes as vectors and 22.9% knew the importance of insecticide-treated bed nets in prevention. Similarly, 5.5% correctly stated that S. typhi causes typhoid, while 11.1% mistakenly stated that P. falciparum was responsible. Preventive knowledge of typhoid included avoiding raw vegetables (29.7%), handwashing (25.7%), and avoiding contaminated water (21.6%). Microscopic tests revealed 65 (32.5%) cases of malaria, whereas RDTs showed 53 (26.5%) cases. Typhoid-positive cases were detected using the Widal slide test in 43 (21.5%) participants and blood cultures in 24 (12.0%). The largest proportion of microscopy-positive malaria cases occurred in the 36-45-year age group at both health facilities (MMHA 35.3%, GHIA 32.3%); males accounted for 55.9% of microscopy-positive cases at MMHA, whereas females accounted for 58.1% at GHIA. Widal positivity was 20.0% at MMHA and 23.0% at GHIA, while the 36-45-year age group accounted for the largest proportion of blood-culture-positive typhoid cases (MMHA 54.5%, GHIA 38.5%), with no blood-culture-positive cases in participants aged ≥46 years. Among co-infected participants, males accounted for 52.4% at MMHA and 57.1% at GHIA. These findings indicate poor understanding within the community regarding the causative agents of the diseases and further emphasise the importance of public education.

Identification of Cutaneous Fungal Pathogens among Students in a Rural Area

2026-09-22T08:59:46+00:00

Cutaneous fungal infections are common superficial infections that affect keratinised tissues such as the skin, hair, and nails. A variety of fungal pathogens cause these infections and constitute a significant public health concern, particularly in tropical regions where environmental conditions favour fungal growth. This study was conducted to isolate, identify, and determine the distribution of cutaneous fungal pathogens among students of Madonna University, Elele, Rivers State, Nigeria. A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out involving 45 students with suspected cutaneous fungal infections. Samples were collected from the suspected site of infection and examined microscopically using 10% potassium hydroxide (KOH) to detect fungal elements. The specimens were subsequently inoculated using the slide culture technique, and fungal isolates were identified microscopically using lactophenol cotton blue (LPCB) staining based on their morphological characteristics. Data obtained were analysed using descriptive statistics, and associations between demographic variables and fungal infection were assessed at a significance level of p < 0.05. The total prevalence of the fungal isolates among the study population was 20%. The fungal isolates identified were Microsporum sp. (8.9%), Hortaea sp. (4.4%), Candida sp. (2.2%), Epidermophyton sp. (2.2%), and Penicillium sp. (2.2%). Microsporum sp. was the predominant isolate. Participants aged 11–20 years recorded the highest number of fungal isolates, while females recorded more isolates than males. However, no statistically significant association was observed between fungal infection and age or gender. Microsporum sp. was also the most widely distributed isolate across the hostels surveyed. The study demonstrated the occurrence of diverse cutaneous fungal pathogens among Madonna University students, with Microsporum sp. being the predominant isolate. The findings emphasise the importance of proper laboratory identification of cutaneous fungal pathogens for accurate diagnosis and effective management, as well as the need for good hygiene practices to reduce cutaneous fungal infections among students.

Microbial Bioremediation of Petroleum-contaminated Coastal Soils in Rivers State, Nigeria

2026-09-22T10:41:30+00:00

Petroleum contamination of coastal soils poses significant environmental concerns due to the persistence and ecological toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons. This study evaluated the potential of indigenous microorganisms for the bioremediation of petroleum-contaminated coastal soils in Rivers State, Nigeria. Soil samples were collected from four petroleum-impacted locations and analysed for physicochemical characteristics, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms. Representative bacterial and fungal isolates were characterised using cultural, morphological and biochemical techniques. Laboratory-scale bioremediation was subsequently conducted using individual microbial isolates, bacterial and fungal consortia, and a bacterial–fungal consortium over 28 days. TPH concentrations, microbial populations and soil pH were monitored at predetermined intervals. Initial TPH concentrations ranged from 3,918 ± 127 to 5,126 ± 159 mg/kg, while hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria and fungi were detected at all sampling stations. TPH concentrations progressively decreased in the inoculated treatments throughout the experimental period. After 28 days, the bacterial–fungal consortium produced the greatest TPH reduction, from 4,516 ± 135 to 1,328 ± 48 mg/kg, corresponding to 70.59 ± 2.01% removal. Bacterial and fungal consortia achieved 60.99 ± 1.89% and 58.07 ± 1.82% removal, respectively, whereas the uninoculated control achieved only 15.61 ± 1.14% removal. The bacterial–fungal consortium also supported the highest hydrocarbon-degrading microbial population. One-way ANOVA indicated significant differences among treatments (p < 0.001). The findings demonstrate that microbial consortia, particularly combined bacterial–fungal cultures, have considerable potential for enhancing the remediation of petroleum-contaminated coastal soils.

Detection of Cryptosporidium Species in Human Diarrhoeic Stools Using Different Diagnostic Methods at Federal Medical Centre, Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria

2026-10-01T11:22:31+00:00

Cryptosporidiosis is an important cause of diarrhoeal illness, particularly in young children and people with impaired immunity. Laboratory diagnosis may be difficult when microscopy is used alone because Cryptosporidium oocysts can be overlooked or confused with similarly sized material. This study compared conventional microscopy, coproantigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection of Cryptosporidium in diarrhoeic stool specimens collected at Federal Medical Centre, Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. A total of 138 participants, aged 6 months to 60 years, were recruited from the Emergency Clinic, General Outpatient Department and Medical Outpatient Department. Fresh stool specimens were divided into three portions for microscopic examination, coproantigen ELISA and PCR. Microscopy included direct saline and Lugol's iodine preparations, formol-ether concentration and modified Ziehl-Neelsen (MZN) staining. ELISA was performed with a commercial Cryptosporidium coproantigen kit, while DNA was extracted and amplified using Cryptosporidium-specific primers. Cryptosporidium was identified in 26 (18.8%) samples by microscopy, 29 (21.0%) by ELISA and 34 (24.6%) by PCR. Using PCR as the reference method, microscopy had 70.6% sensitivity, 98.1% specificity and 91.3% accuracy. ELISA showed 85.3% sensitivity, 100% specificity and 96.4% accuracy. Cryptosporidium-positive participants were predominantly from rural areas and many reported contact with domestic or farm animals. The findings indicate that PCR provided the highest detection rate, whereas ELISA offered a practical compromise between diagnostic performance and laboratory requirements. In settings where molecular facilities are unavailable, ELISA can complement microscopy for routine diagnosis.